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Law as a Career Choice Is Law School the Right Choice? Students are often lured to law school by what they perceive as a secure career path. Certainly a legal education provides a good foundation for any work setting, but there may be other ways to achieve your interests and career goals. Law school is expensive and requires total committment to your school work so make sure the investment of time and money is worth it to you, now. Before you begin the process of applying to law school, evaluate your skills, abilities, interests and personal characteristics. Are you a good writer?
Do you express yourself well? Are you good at investigating and researching information? Do you like to argue and debate? Are you analytical? Can you see both sides of an issue? Are you persistent? These are many of the skills and abilities lawyers see as important in the practice of law and may give you a place to start in evaluating whether law is a good fit for you. Once you feel confident that law is your career choice, research the areas of law that interest you. Besides traditional law firm work, there are options in environmental law, national, state, and local governments, labor law, patent law, corporate law, public interest and self employment and many other possibilities. The library at Career Services contains books and journals about different areas of law. Talk to lawyers who are practicing law in your area of interest. Career Services has an alumni network which includes a listing of attorneys who are happy to talk with students about what they do. Find out what a typical day is like, their education and work background, what they like and don't like about their job and what skills and abilities they think are important in the practice of law. The answers to these questions might offer you a better perspective on whether this type of law matches your interests and goals. In the last 10 years, the practice of law has changed dramatically. Learn about both current and future trends by reading newspapers, magazines and journals (ie. New York Times, Wall Street Journal, Student Lawyer, US News and World Report). This will also help to determine whether you have a realistic view of the legal field. The study and practice of law can be stimulating, challenging, and provide some exciting opportunities--just be sure it's right for you. It is also important to conduct research on the profession, and read all you can about the different types of work that lawyers do. This can be a particularly daunting activity, however, given the broad range of choices available within the profession. This website contains introductory material on various legal fields and legal careers, along with links to helpful internet sites containing information about specific legal fields, jobs, salaries and regional information. Its purpose is to help you think through whether some of the types of work done by lawyers appeal to you. Combined with other activities mentioned above, it should be a useful tool to help you decide whether or not you want to embark on a legal career. As a basic overview, there are two main types of law: civil and criminal. Criminal law deals with crimes committed against the state, whereas civil law encompasses disputes arising between individuals. There two types of lawyers: litigators and transactional attorneys. As will be further explained below, litigators are basically "courtroom lawyers." They take cases to trial and prepare any necessary paperwork. Transactional lawyers typically neither go to court nor try cases. Instead transactional lawyers "do deals." The following is a helpful way to understand the system:
What is litigation? A procedure called "discovery" then takes place. At discovery, lawyers research and obtain information relevant to their case. They interview witnesses (sometimes formally in what is called a "deposition") and obtain crucial documents that they will use as evidence at trial. States have specific rules governing discovery procedures. At trial, lawyers will present the evidence that they have collected. This can involve interviewing witnesses on the witness stand, or filing exhibits with the appropriate court. Trial courts create a factual record of the proceedings before it containing the court transcript, and exhibits and motions filed by the opposing parties. At trial, lawyers will present evidence relating to their cases to a judge and jury, or a judge alone. Trials that occur without juries are called "bench trials." Once a trial is completed, a party may be able to appeal to a higher court. The appellate court will review the legal issues of the trial court below, but cannot alter any of the lower court's factual record. Appellate litigation takes place in front of a judge or judges only. Furthermore, new evidence is not presented and new issues are not raised. Because litigation is a huge field, the judicial system has developed mechanisms by which to deal with specific types of litigation. The following classifications, adapted from www.lawoffice.com (pathfind/guides) contains a helpful list of different types of litigations as well as different arenas in which litigation takes place: Bankruptcy Litigation Additionally, even within similar litigation "topics," litigators may have different experiences. A litigator in a 500-attorney law firm will very likely have less courtroom experience than a litigator in a 2-person law firm. Various reasons can account for this disparity: •Big firm litigation may be more complex and may take more time to process than a small firm's simpler case.
•Big firms may have a large number of attorneys working on a particular case or matter and this may affect who is ultimately chosen to conduct the trial (usually the more senior associates are chosen). •Some law firms may be "settlement oriented" and may prefer to settle cases out of court, rather than engage in a long trial. •One of the most common misconceptions about the law is that all lawyers all litigators. In fact, notwithstanding the many different types of litigation fields, only a small percentage of lawyers in the United States are litigators. Many lawyers are "transactional lawyers" and the nature of their work will become apparent in the discussions of different fields of law below. Practice Area Summaries The following information will just give you a very basic idea of several different areas of practice within the law. It should also make clear the extent and range of work you can do as a lawyer, and the flexibility of the Juris doctor degree. Corporate Law (By Steve Ebert) Most corporate work, however, is accomplished by attorneys without litigation. Transactional attorneys negotiate and draft agreements behind the various deals engaged in by a corporation. Work can include mergers and acquisitions (M&A), financing arrangements such as letters of credit, or asset purchases. Transactional attorneys must ensure that clients actually get what is written in their agreements. Corporate lawyers spend a lot of time combing through the primary underlying documents of an agreement to ensure that the representations expressed by the other parties in a transaction with their client are accurate and do not expose it to any hidden risks. This investigative process, which is usually done by younger attorneys, is known as due diligence. Corporate attorneys are very well compensated for their hard and demanding work, but their average work-week can be very long. In-House v. Outside As an attorney for a nonprofit, one can specialize in a number of areas. Tax attorneys provide valuable services so that the nonprofit can retain its tax-exempt status. These attorneys prevent private inurement and determine that the organizational activities fit with in the designated allowable areas under the Internal Revenue Code (IRC) as stated in section 501(c). Also, tax attorneys provide important advice and legal opinion letters that opine to the legality of certain joint ventures with for-profit businesses. Trust and estate lawyers manage the planned giving department by coordinating endowments, and other specialized donor options. Finally, lawyers can serve on the board of directors for non-profit organizations and ensure that they comply with their charters. Attorneys may also negotiate lease agreements with tenants. Another thing they do, to increase the liquidity (available capital) for the real estate developer, is help the developer negotiate investment agreements with a large company which groups real estate assets all over the country for investors. One type of real estate investment vehicle is known as a REIT (Real Estate Investment Trust). Environmental/Land Use An attorney also represents property owners in lease negotiations to restrict the activities of tenants to prevent environmental degradation and decrease of property value. Environmental Attorneys also have a litigation role as well. Superfund cleanups, air pollution and the defense of wetlands are just some of the cases they work on. Although the substantive matters are clearly different, the day-to-day roles of litigators specializing in these areas are similar to those of other types of litigators. Environmental lawyers can also work for government agencies (e.g. Environmental Protection Agency) and for non-profits (e.g. The Nature Conservancy.) Business organizations have two primary methods of obtaining external financing for their business affairs-debt and equity. Debt securities are typified in the form of bonds, financial instruments that give investors a return of their principal, combined with additional monies in the form of interest payments over a scheduled period of time. Equities are typified in the form of stock, which allows investors to have a proportionate interest in a company and share in the upside, or potentially downside, of the growth of the company. In addition to these two mainstream examples, other financial instruments that may constitute a security include an investment contract, interest in a partnership, or an option. As a securities attorney on the transactional side, your tasks would include regulatory compliance with the U.S. Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC) and Blue Sky laws (state level securities laws). You would also negotiate and draft financial instruments in the capacity as counsel to the company, commercial bank and/or underwriter (investment bank). Securities litigators work for the plaintiff, representing individual investors that sue for fraud and other misrepresentations, or for government agencies such as the SEC or the U.S. Attorney's Office. In addition they can represent defendants in a variety of forums, including state courts, the federal district and appellate courts and administrative proceeds: see Regulatory Practice. What is Finance Law? ( By Steve Ebert) Public Public finance Project and Structured finance As an attorney, your work would involve extensive negotiations and drafting, in conjunction with due diligence. You would most likely be required to do significant traveling. Also, you would work with other attorneys who have expertise in the underlying substantive area in which you want to finance. Tax considerations permeate every type of business transaction, whether a family partnership, or the issuance of additional equity securities by a Fortune 500 company. Although tax attorneys do not usually have the primary role in driving a transaction, they are essential counselors in all areas of business, responsible for the complex structure of corporate America. This is an excellent practice area for individuals who desire predictability in their lifestyles, and control over their work hours. It is also for people who enjoy the challenge of performing detailed analyses within a complex set of rules. Tax lawyers, as the strategists for the deals, work for law firms, the Big Five accounting firms, the IRS, and commercial and private banks. Regulatory law is primarily comprised of the "fourth branch" of government - administrative agencies. Congress transfers authority to various agencies through the delegation doctrine to further the policies and directives they have enacted. Examples include the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Securities & Exchange Commission (SEC) and Federal Communications Commission (FCC). Each of these agencies creates its own set of procedural and substantive rules, and these regulate much of the national economy. The goal of lawyers working for these bodies is to make sure that businesses and organizations follow the laws. As a regulatory attorney you could assist business organizations by navigating them through government rules in a compliance capacity. For example, if a technology company wants to become publicly traded, the SEC requires the disclosure of information to investors and the filing of critical documents. On the litigation side, these agencies generally have their own internal court system that complements the Federal judiciary. Lawyers appear with their clients before an Administrative Law Judge (ALJ) and follow abridged procedural rules in a trial on the merits of a particular case. Lastly, attorneys lobby regulatory agencies for their corporate and other clients as well. Administrative agencies can only pass regulations after the proper completion of a notice and comment period. During this period, the attorney/lobbyist can utilize policy and legal concerns in an attempt to influence public policy to meet the needs of their clients. Traditionally, family law was purely a matter of state law. However, this too has begun to change since Congress has enacted legislation governing matters of family life. Such legislation includes laws regulating child support, parental leaves, child custody and parental neglect. Over the coming years, one can expect to see an increased federalization of family law and an evolving uniformity of state law. The practice of family law necessarily involves an understanding of many different fields, including contract law, constitutional law, property law, divorce law and civil procedure, to name a few. And, family law questions often have far reaching impacts in other aspects of one's life. For example, determining whether a marriage is valid may affect a spouse's ability to collect pension benefits or other benefits afforded to a legal spouse. Family law practitioners today can expect to deal with a variety of topics. These include but are not limited to: adoption, alternative dispute resolution, divorce, child support and alimony, wills and estate planning, elder law, genetics and reproduction issues, prenuptial agreements, tax, bankruptcy, and third-party parenting (including alternative guardians, step-parents, same gendered parents). A family lawyer does a lot of work with people. Often the family lawyer not only advises her client about the law, but also serves as a counselor to the client. Those interested in pursuing a family law career should consider whether they would like to work closely with people who are often experiencing emotional pain. Family lawyers must be patient, understanding, and they must also be able to communicate well. What you can expect in a family law career: A 1997 American Bar Association survey of family lawyers revealed that 65% of family lawyers practiced in small firms (3 persons or less). 75% of the lawyers surveyed said they worked 60 hours per week or less. And more than 75% of the lawyers surveyed earned less than $100,000 per year. Of course, this survey does not account for other factors that might affect the salaries, such as regional differences. In reality, criminal law is not as dramatic as the movies or television would purport. In fact, the majority of criminal cases are dismissed or settled in some way before there is even a trial. Criminal law deals primarily with crimes committed against the state, i.e. with social crimes. Examples include murder, theft, larceny, arson, embezzlement, and rape. These crimes are prosecuted by either a state or federal official who can hold any of the following titles: U.S. or state attorney general, U.S. attorney, state's attorney, district attorney, county attorney or city attorney. Criminal statutes determine which courts will hear what cases and who will prosecute those cases. States have different procedures by which they prosecute individuals accused of committing crimes. However, in most states, a prosecutor's office will begin investigating a case after the individual has been arrested. At this point, the state and the accused will engaged in what is called plea bargaining. Plea Bargaining is basically a negotiation between the state and the accused. There the accused may decide to plead to a lesser charge or attempt to seek a lesser sentence than might otherwise be sought by the state. If the two parties agree, the individual may receive his or her sentence without undergoing a lengthy and expensive trial process. If the two parties cannot agree, then a trial may take place. A criminal defense lawyer defends the individual accused of committing a crime against the state prosecution. Criminal defense lawyers can either be public defenders (appointed by the state to represent those who cannot afford to retain their own lawyers) or private practitioners (hired by the accused and paid for by the accused). Defense attorneys do not have to believe that their clients are innocent in order to represent them. In fact, many defense attorneys believe or know that their clients are guilty, but nevertheless represent them. That is because many defense attorneys believe that everyone is entitled to adequate representation. What you can expect if you're a young lawyer working as a prosecutor Many jobs in this field are competitive. For example, it is extremely difficult, if not almost impossible, to begin working at the U.S. Attorney's office immediately upon graduation. Securing such a position is considered a very prestigious accomplishment. What you can expect if you're working as a defense attorney What is White Collar Criminal Law? Many big firms have developed small white collar crime departments to address the needs of their corporate clients. More importantly, practicing public interest law does not limit the lawyer to any specific type of law. They are no more labor lawyers, than they are criminal lawyers or contracts lawyers. Thus, public interest law is best defined by its activist nature as well as its clients. There are three places where one can find public interest lawyers: •public law firms (for example: legal services organizations, public defender programs) Public Interest Organizations Non-Profit Organizations Private Law Firms Attorneys seeking to work solely in public interest should reconsider whether they would like to work at a law firm. While law firms may certainly offer an attorney pro bono opportunities, law firms will expect their attorneys to devote a majority of their time to billable, non-public interest matters. On the transactional side, companies want to eliminate legal risk by planning in their contracts for what will happen if they fall into financial trouble. Creditors normally retain a security interest, i.e. personal property equivalent to a mortgage in real estate. In the event a debtor is unable to pay for goods bought on credit, the creditor will have a pre-agreed repayment plan or retain the legal right to repossess the goods. If the debtor is a solid business but experiencing a cash crunch and thus difficulty with timing of payments, the creditor may work closely with the debtor on an arrangement subject to the contract and the bankruptcy code. As a litigator, an attorney can represent the creditor in the client's attempt to salvage as much value as possible to minimize their loss in a bankruptcy procedure. Bankruptcy lawyers work for law firms and certain types of businesses. What is International Law? (By Elisa Behar) Lawyers who work on trade agreement for the government usually have experience in the area via •The international version of other substantive areas, e.g. project finance, or international trade. Sometimes large corporate law firms have a substantial number of international clients International law can intersect many aspects of the law. For example, when you travel on a commercial airline flight there is the Warsaw Convention that limits the liability of the airline, in certain circumstances, for injuries that they may cause to you. However, as a particular area of law, as contrasted to being an element within the broader context of another substantive area, attorneys engaged in an international law tend to work for governments or non-governmental organizations (NGOs). An attorney for the US government could work with the US Trade Representative on negotiating a trade agreement with China. Also, a lawyer could work for Amnesty International and investigate claims against a foreign country. In addition, international lawyers are an integral part of the tribunal set up to investigate and prosecute war criminals in the conflict in the former Yugoslavia. Finally, international lawyers can represent governments or private groups when arbitrating critical issues in forums such as NAFTA or the WTO. International law represents a growing sector for lawyers as institutions such as the United Nations (UN) and the International Court of Justice (ICJ) grow in size and scope. Copyright Law Patent Law It is important to point out that the novelty requirement needed to obtain a copyright differs from the original requirement needed to obtain a copyright. Novel means that the product has not existed before. Original can refer to two identical works created at different points in time. Patent owners have a monopoly over their product for a period of time. Patent rights may be transferred, sold and licensed. Notably, because the requirements for a patent are so rigid and complex, patent lawyers must have technical backgrounds or passed the patent bar. Trademark Law Lawyers specializing in these any of these fields can expect their work to be interdisciplinary and varied. They can work in a range of arenas: corporations, law firms and for federal agencies and courts. An intellectual property attorney working for a corporation may find herself litigating disputes arising out of copyright, trademark or patent issues, or she may find herself prosecuting patent applications. A publishing house, for example, may hire lawyers to deal with copyright issues; a company such as Nabisco® may hire lawyers to handle its trademark matters. Whatever the case, a lawyer working for a corporation will typically have only one client - the corporation. Intellectual Property lawyers working for law firms may find that they have a variety of clients and will become well-versed in a myriad of issues. They may find themselves litigating intellectual property issues more than they would if they worked for a corporation. Government agencies, such as the United States Patent and Trademark Office, employ both non-lawyers with technical expertise, and intellectual property lawyers, to review patent and trademark applications. Those reviewing patent applications must have technical backgrounds or have passed the patent bar. What an intellectual property lawyer can expect: An intellectual property lawyer's hours and wages vary tremendously. This field is lucrative and those specializing in this field can expect to earn generous salaries, particularly if they choose to work for larger law firms. However, many such law firms have a billing requirement that lawyers must meet. Immigration lawyers deal primarily with either facilitating the legal status of immigrants; or, if an individual works for the United States government, determining whether s/he legally belongs in the United States. Immigration lawyers deal extensively with their clients. Furthermore, many of their clients have difficulty with the English language. Thus it is beneficial for an immigration lawyer to be fluent in other languages. Immigration lawyers, like family lawyers, must be able to interact with clients on an interpersonal level and must also be willing to work with people who may be in distress. Trusts & Estates lawyers typically must know a lot about federal and state tax. Their jobs involve considering the tax consequences of particular will structures, drafting the will, administrating the will and if need be, litigating any disputes concerning the will. Many large firms around the country have small departments devoted to trusts and estates. Lawyers there can expect to work a variety of hours depending on the firms. Lawyers who work in Trusts and Estates department find that their hours are more predictable than their litigation and corporate department counterparts. Lawyers also must be able to work closely with people, sometimes in stressful situations. Even Trusts and Estates lawyers in larger firms boast that they are able to "see the client." Second, many health centers are Internal Revenue Code (IRC) section 501(c)(3) tax exempt organizations. As such, they must serve a public purpose - e.g. treat indigent patients. Attorneys must monitor that donations are properly funneled, and the charitable purpose properly promoted. Many health centers, although tax exempt, engage in joint ventures with for-profit entities, such as physician practice groups and management companies. Strategic and creative attorneys navigate regulatory and tax laws to assist in the health center's success. Third, these attorneys can have roles similar to those of corporate attorneys when health centers merge with other health centers, or negotiate contracts with vendors. Finally, labor and employment lawyers are valuable, as with any major business, to determine internal hiring policies, address employee grievances and negotiate contracts with individuals and labor unions. Health care attorneys are employed by HMOs, insurance agencies, law firms and hospitals. Today, labor lawyers still practice in much of the same way they did years ago. They still play key roles in union negotiations and collective bargaining. However, labor lawyers have diversified, so to speak, and now there are more than just two types of labor lawyers. In fact, there are "union lawyers, management, lawyers, government lawyers, arbitrators, and agents." Management lawyers often work in firms. Management lawyers typically focus on assisting companies that do not have unions to stay that way! Union lawyers, by contrast, work strictly for the unions and assist in contract negotiations responsive to employee concerns and grievances. Government lawyers can really work in a myriad of fields relating to labor law. A government lawyer who does labor work may work anywhere from the National Labor Relations Board (NLRB). Employment Law Employment lawyers represent plaintiffs who feel they have been injured in some way on the job, or by their employer. Similarly, they can represent the employers in defending them against these types of suits. Employment lawyers can also review employee contracts or work on employee benefits. Election lawyers can represent candidates, political action committees (PACs), political parties and oversight agencies. They may have administrative duties as well. This can include fundraising for the election. Election law is a new and limited field. Few large law firms nationally have an election law practice. And, as can probably be predicted, election lawyers tend to be busier at election times. However, this does not mean that election lawyers are unemployed during non-election periods. The law of the sea or admiralty combines financial and regulatory concerns. On the finance side, there are certain law firms that specialize in the financing of maritime related capital equipment. Although this practice area is somewhat nuanced to the industry, it parallels the notions articulated in the finance section above. On the regulatory side, there are various international treaties and conventions that control the sea lanes, the nature of items that can be transported and salvage rights of distressed ships, to name a few. Generally, a regulatory attorney would work for a national government, the United Nations or in-house for a multi-national transportation company. Lawyers practicing entertainment law are not typically trained to be entertainment lawyers in law school. There is no substantive area of law individually identified as "entertainment law." However, as law schools adapt to the changing market place for potential students, more and more law schools have developed courses that provide a background in the various technical specialties involved in an entertainment practice. Thus, entertainment lawyers usually develop expertise in one or more legal areas, such as copyright, contracts, trademark, labor, worker's compensation, tax, business organizations, bankruptcy, family, immigration, or criminal law. There are five branches of the entertainment industry, each involving production of projects intended for initial distribution and release in that branch: music, theater, movies, television, and print publishing (books, magazines, and newspapers). There are also five broad areas of concern common to all of these branches: credit; artistic control; grant of rights; representations, warranties and indemnities; and compensation. Potential clients in an entertainment law practice include multinational corporations (i.e. internet providers, motion picture studios, radio stations); unions (i.e. Screen Actors Guild, The Authors Guild, Writers Guild of America); individuals (i.e. actors, agents, artists, directors, songwriters); and miscellaneous clients (i.e. internet providers, restaurant and retail outlets, theme parks). Music: Attorneys that practice law in the music business do so as members of a law firm that has been retained by a record company to handle the legal business that the in-house legal staff cannot handle. Although most major record companies use in-house counsel exclusively for signing artists and making standard deals, record companies usually retain outside counsel for corporate, tax, and litigation problems. Firms are also retained to handle mergers and complex affiliation deals. Theater: Theaters have required the special services of entertainment lawyers familiar with the unique problems involved in staging a theatrical performance. These problems include securing the rights to perform a play; and negotiating contracts with the investors, producers, writers, directors, actors, and set designers. Lawyers also play an important role in negotiating rights to music, venue rental, and insurance. Movies: Motion picture studios have in-house counsel to handle the day to day legal work of property acquisition, story and music copyrights, talent negotiations, guild agreement compliance with actors, extras, and directors, licensing, and distribution. Outside counsel is usually retained for litigation and complex business transactions. Television: An attorney involved in television must be familiar with securing rights to scripts, hiring the producers, directors, actors, camera and lighting technicians, and all the other people who contribute to the on-air product. Television work also requires negotiating the rights to music, syndicating popular programs, securing movie and theatrical rights for special presentation, negotiating advertising contracts, labor union agreements, copyrights, and advertising the news staff on sensitive issues. Print Publishing: Print publishing involves projects that are initially distributed to the public in printed form, as newspaper or magazine articles or as hardcover or softcover books. Attorneys in this area of entertainment law have to have a vast knowledge of contract negotiations and copyright law. For example, the contract between authors and book publishers is the agreement by which an author grants a publisher the right to print, publish, and sell the author's book. In most instances, this is the only document that the parties will sign, and it will govern their entire relationship. Moreover, even if the author retains an agent to find a publisher, negotiate a deal and dispose of reserved rights, the agency clause in the publishing agreement may be the only binding description of the author/agent relationship. For those with an interest in entertainment law, it is recommended that you gain admittance to either New York of California's state bars since New York City and Los Angeles serve as headquarters for the industry. Lawyers interested in developing an entertainment law practice in a city outside of the two entertainment hubs should approach it with patience. An entertainment practice develops with time after a lot of hard work at both refining the lawyer's skills and developing industry contacts. Entertainment is a relationship business. Success in the entertainment field is all about "who you know". Networking in order to establish industry contacts is highly beneficial. Word-of-mouth in the industry is probably the primary source of job information. It is possible to develop connections through bar association participation and community activities. Attendance at industry-related continuing education programs can introduce you to the right people. Social contacts established at bar-related activities let you know about local activities where you can continue to meet the industry people who can help your career. The traditional view holds that there is no area of study that can be specifically referred to as "sports law." There is no area of law that is unique to sports alone. What we normally mean when we say "sports law" is sports and the law that impacts that industry. Contract law is an identifiable area of law that has a significant impact on the sports industry. Contract law principles retain their importance with respect to the interpretation and application of the terms of Collective Bargaining Agreements (CBAs). We read about athletes and contract disputes on a daily basis. In addition, contract principles remain relevant with respect to terms of player/team contracts that are open to individualized negotiation, notwithstanding uniform player contracts in the major team sports. Beyond player/team agreements, principles of contract law are relevant to the creation, formation and enforcement of a wide variety of agreements that are struck in the sports world. These include endorsement contracts, coach/team contracts, arena lease agreements, and student-athlete/university scholarship agreements and letters of intent. Labor law is another readily identifiable area as well, particularly with the labor strife in sports these days. With the exception of soccer, players in all of the major team sports in the United States are represented by labor unions. Because of this, labor law and antitrust law have emerged to impact significantly the law that governs teams sports in the United States. Antitrust law has had a severe impact on the structure of relationships in professional sports. Notwithstanding baseball, which was deemed exempt from antitrust laws, antitrust laws applied to give team owners less leverage in their relationships with players. Tort law is another identifiable area of sports law. Due to the unique characteristics of sports, tort law is applicable to impart liability on athletes for on-the field conduct. Specifically, negligence and battery suits against the parties involved. Tax law also plays a significant role in sports law. Because there are significant revenues and salaries in sports, tax law is also an important component of a sports law practice. There are at least three areas in which taxation issues have or will be raised: 1) player's compensation; 2) tax status of teams and 3) college revenues. Statutory law, which includes federal legislation such as the Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), Title IX and Title VI, also play a major role in sports law. Constitutional law is also important when referring to the legality of mandatory drug testing of athletes. Constitutional law doctrines have also been invoked to challenge NCAA eligibility rules and assertions that due process protections have not been afforded to athletes. Other areas of law that are not as easily identifiable include issues related to stadium and arena construction, enterprise governance, and even estate and taxation issues. Attorneys and agents who represent athletes are called upon to render a myriad of services for their clients. It is a misconceived perception to equate the practice of sports law with the representation of players in their contract negotiations. Given the vast areas of substantive law that are incorporated into sports law, attorneys are seen as "general practitioners" given the ultimate array of subjects that she/he must master. A sports lawyer may serve a transactional function, a litigation function, or both. Apart from negotiating contracts with individual players, the lawyer who acts as counsel for a team or league will need to negotiate contracts with employees, including coaches and administrative staff. The attorney who acts in this capacity may serve multiple other functions, including negotiating lease agreements relating to sports venues and construction related contracts; negotiating endorsement contracts with sports merchandisers; negotiating television and radio contracts; supervising labor, tort, antitrust, breach of contract and other types of litigation; interpreting and applying collective bargaining agreements; managing player grievances relating to collective bargaining agreements; and, representing teams in legal matters involving leagues and vice-versa. Attorneys representing educational institutions will be called upon to represent their clients in broad and varied ways, including representing colleges and universities in negotiating and enforcing employment contracts with coaches, athletic directors and other athletic related administrators and personnel; representing colleges and universities in lawsuits addressing such matters as compliance with NCAA rules and regulations and Title IX compliance; representing a university with respect to facility agreements and negotiating marketing related contracts; developing, protecting and enforcing intellectual property rights; acting as a compliance officer within a university's athletic department; representing secondary school districts in litigation related matters such as those involving tort liability, Title IX, and the American with Disabilities Act; and, developing and providing risk management advice to school districts. The attorney who represents a sports facility may be called upon to perform a range of services, including negotiating and monitoring contracts with teams, concessionaires, governmental authorities and contractors; and representing or supervising outside counsel in litigation relating to matters such as tort liability stemming from injury to spectators, ADA disputes and breach of contract. Sports lawyers offer other services, including representing athletes engaged in individual sports; representing promoters of various types of sports related events such as boxing, tennis and golf tournaments and college football bowl games; representing national and international federations and other bodies that govern sports, such as the PGA, and the International or US Olympic Committees; and representing media interests (for example, television and radio networks, sports journalists and broadcasters, as well as their employers) and organizations that seek commercial endorsements from sports figures. Prospective sports lawyers may pursue one of several career paths. One route is to be hired by a law firm frequently involved with sports law. Another path is to be engaged by a player-agent firm, or by an individual agent, whether the agent is a lawyer or nonlawyer. The office of the university's general counsel, the union's office, the team's office and the league and commissioner's offices, are other possible sources of employment.
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